A Theory of Everything: Origins of Gravity, Mach's Principle, Advanced Potentials, Time Dilation

by Lawrence Stephenson Theory of Everything | Origins of Gravity

Why are theoretical physicists making strenuous efforts to achieve a Theory of Everything? They are aiming to unite gravitational and quantum theories. The very different mathematics of each of these theories is well understood and enables accurate predictions to be made of both:

the universe at large, at one extreme; and
atomic interactions at the other extreme.

But uniting the two theories into a single "Theory of Everything" has, so far, proved to be impossible. The reason for this failure may be traced back to an incorrect interpretation of Maxwell's equations. These equations predict that all electromagnetic waves, including light waves, must travel in free space at a definite velocity c which is independent of the velocity of the source. Nevertheless, note that Maxwell's equations cannot tell us anything about the velocities of individual photons. Care must be taken when analysing signals that pass between moving observers. These signals do not all travel at c.

When a signal, consisting of a rectangular pulse of electromagnetic energy, arrives at a detector the initial precursor transient will consist of a few photons. Quantum theory tells us that there will be an indeterminate time delay before the steady-state is reached, and it is only then that the velocity of the following electromagnetic wave can be observed to be equal to c. How does this result affect relativity theory?

Einstein's special and general theories of relativity are mathematically flawless - but the physical interpretation of the mathematics has been faulty because it has not been appreciated that two of the three assumptions which Einstein made when deriving special relativity restrict the theory to steady-state electromagnetic waves.

To add to the confusion the "advanced potential" solution of Maxwell's equations has been misunderstood for over a century! This solution has been assumed to be invalid in the real world, where time flows in its normal direction. However, there are specific problems, involving the passage of signals between moving observers, where the advanced potential solution is not only valid in the real world, but also it provides the correct theoretical basis for two of Einstein's assumptions.

A revised form of special relativity requires that the observed free-space velocity of any electromagnetic wave must always be equal to c relative to the observer's material detector. The advanced potential solution dictates that it is the material of the detector itself which ensures that the approach velocity of any electromagnetic wave must be equal to c. But how can the material of the detector slow down or speed up the arrival velocity of an incoming pulse of electromagnetic energy?

Quantum theory must be introduced to analyse the transient part of the solution when a pulse of electromagnetic energy arrives at a material detector. Quantum theory then predicts that the act of observation changes the arrival velocity of the pulse at a material detector. The first few photons to arrive correspond to a precursor transient which provides the energy to establish the new steady-state electromagnetic “near fields” surrounding the detector. The arrival velocities of the first few photons are not restricted to c but these velocities are not directly observable. When the near fields of the detector have been established the advanced potential solution predicts that the observed arrival velocity of the electromagnetic wave, that follows the precursor transient, must have a constant value equal to c relative to the detector. The observed velocity of an electromagnetic wave travelling in free space must always be equal to c when the steady-state has been reached. But there is no need for the imprecise statement that the velocity of light is always equal to c in empty space.

Looked at another way, an "ultraviolet catastrophe" restriction applies to the reception of electromagnetic energy as well as to its radiation. Quantum theory is essential when dealing with the high frequency Fourier components associated with the initial reception of any pulsed signal. Special relativity and quantum theory are linked and they provide the two parts of a complete solution. Additionally, the concept of velocity retains its classical interpretation within special relativity. Any change in the arrival velocity of a signal, to make it equal to c, is accounted for by the obstruction provided by the detector and a change in the radiation pressure force.

A further deduction from Maxwell’s equations demonstrates that time dilation must occur relative to the material background frame of our Universe. A detailed analysis of these ideas follows in separate sections and as a PDF of my recent book.

Summary of new ideas on the Origins of Gravity

The origin of gravity is a mystery. Gravity is an unusual force that cannot be shielded or absorbed. There is no satisfactory explanation for the experimental observation that the gravitational mass of any given body is equal to its inertial mass. Also, the value of the gravitational constant G remains unexplained and is unrelated to any of the other constants of physics.

However, new ideas on the origin of gravity, based on including a stronger form of Mach’s Principle, predict that these two types of mass should be identical, and indicates that gravity may have inertial origins.

When clarifying Mach's Principle in 1916, Einstein stated that the most distant masses in the universe and their motions relative to local masses must affect either the local laws of motion, or the local law of gravitation, or both. But he was unable to fully embrace this concept within general relativity.

Physicists have usually ignored part of Einstein's statement concerning Mach's Principle and they have assumed that the law of gravitation is fixed. To incorporate Mach's Principle, unconvincing attempts have been made to show how our local laws of motion might be affected by the relative motion of distant matter.

Why has Einstein's other option for developing Mach's Principle been ignored? Instead of assuming that local inertial reaction forces might be produced by a gravitational interaction between the body being pushed and distant matter, one may propose that local gravitational forces might be generated by the inertial motion of local matter relative to distant matter. This new approach suggests that the rotation of our Universe, relative to a background of distant universes, may be the direct cause of the value of the gravitational constant G that we observe.

While leaving general relativity and the free space value of G unchanged, the new approach indicates that the rotational motion of the Earth, relative to the distant masses in our Universe, might give rise to an increase in the value of G equal to about 0.4% when it is measured well below the surface of the Earth. There is already some evidence for this increase. Some recent measurements, obtained at many different laboratories across the world, show unexpected variations of G of up to 0.6%.

One interpretation of the new approach also predicts gravitational stability for all atomic particles having spin. Furthermore, a single equation explains the magnitudes and origins of the four fundamental forces of nature – but we start off an examination of a "Theory of Everything" by pointing out a rather obvious shortcoming of classical theory that seems to have been neglected....

Theory of Everything - gravitational / inertial mass
Click for why gravitational and inertial mass are equal

Advanced Potentials, Quantum Theory and Special Relativity
Click for more

Time Dilation, the Clock Paradox or Twin Paradox, and Relativity Theory
Click for more

"New Ideas that Change Einstein's Theories" - the 2011
third edition of my book (small PDF file)
or choose large PDF file